American Quakers
From the Atlantic to the Xiang

1. Leaving England

The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) was formally founded in England in 1652 by George Fox (1624–1691). They believed in "that of God in every person," rejected priests, sacraments, and church as intermediaries, and advocated equality — refusing to swear oaths or remove their hats before social superiors.

In 17th-century England, these ideas were seen as threats to the social order. Fox himself was imprisoned eight times; countless Friends faced fines, imprisonment, and public humiliation. Yet persecution bred resilience — by the end of 1660, Friends in England alone numbered over 40,000.

As the Stuart Restoration intensified persecution, Friends began leaving for North America in numbers. In 1657, a group of Friends sailed from England aboard the Woodhouse, crossed the Atlantic, and landed at New Amsterdam — the first large-scale Quaker migration to America, known as the "Voyage of the Woodhouse."

2. William Penn and the "Holy Experiment"

William Penn (1644–1718), son of a British Royal Navy admiral, was born to privilege but converted to Quakerism in his youth, breaking with his family's path. Arrested for street preaching, he was ordered by a judge to remove his hat, swear an oath, and apologise. Penn refused, hat firmly on his head: "In matters of faith, I cannot bow to men."

King Charles II owed Penn's late father a debt of 16,000 pounds. Unable to pay in cash, the king settled with land. In 1681, Charles II signed a charter granting Penn a vast tract of North America, to be called "Pennsylvania" — "Penn's woods."

Penn did not seek wealth. He sought to build a place "where all could belong." He drafted a constitution extraordinary for its time: government derives its power from the consent of the governed; religious freedom is inviolable; native lands shall not be taken by force; prisoners deserve a chance at reform.

"If any land be under my governance, let it never repeat the bloodshed of my homeland for the sake of faith." — William Penn

In 1682, Penn personally laid out Philadelphia — Greek for "City of Brotherly Love." Wide streets, generous public green spaces, brick houses, clean lanes. Unarmed, he walked into the forest to meet native leaders, sat with them on the ground, and through interpreters negotiated a fair price for the land. That peace treaty held for decades — a rare chapter in colonial history.

Philadelphia quickly became the most thriving city in the colonies. Persecuted Quakers came, as did Mennonites driven out by Puritans, debtors, and artisans. Philadelphia earned the nickname "Quaker City" — a title it still carries.

3. Social Testimonies: Abolition, Women's Rights, Native Peoples

American Quaker history is a story of faith lived out in action.

Pioneers of abolition

Quakers were among the first Christians to oppose slavery outright. In the mid-18th century, John Woolman (1720–1772) travelled and preached against slaveholding. "Liberty," he said, "is the natural right of all men everywhere."

In 1816, the Alexandria (Virginia) Monthly Meeting passed a resolution "forbidding Friends to own slaves or to hire slaves from slaveholders" — one of the earliest religious anti-slavery resolutions in America. During the Civil War era, Friends were deeply involved in the Underground Railroad, helping enslaved people escape north.

Women's rights

Quakers allowed women to preach and participate in church affairs from the start — extraordinary in 17th-century Christianity. Pioneers of American women's rights Lucretia Mott and Susan B. Anthony were both shaped by Quaker tradition. The 1848 Seneca Falls Convention, which launched the women's suffrage movement, had Quaker roots.

Native peoples

While most Puritans saw Native Americans as "followers of the devil," Quakers held that "their religion has much in common with ours," and welcomed people of all faiths. Penn's treaty with the natives was the fruit of this conviction.

4. Schism and Renewal

In the 19th century, American Quakerism experienced a major split. In 1827, followers of Elias Hicks — who emphasised the "inner light" and social action — separated from the Orthodox, who emphasised the divinity of Christ and biblical authority. The "Hicksite–Orthodox schism" divided Quakers into several branches.

Even so, the Quaker spirit was not weakened. Today, American Quakers are organised into several branches:

• Friends General Conference (FGC) — primarily silent worship, theologically liberal;
• Friends United Meeting (FUM) — has pastors, includes preaching in worship, more evangelical;
• Evangelical Friends Church International (EFCI) — closest to evangelical Protestantism;
• Conservative Friends — retain traditional plain dress and silent worship.

Branches differ, but the conviction of the "inner light" remains the common ground.

5. Peace and Service: AFSC and the Nobel Peace Prize

Quaker pacifism has had deep impact on American history. During both World Wars, many Quakers served as conscientious objectors, working in field hospitals and reconstruction rather than bearing arms.

In 1917, the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) was founded, initially to help refugees and prisoners of war during World War I. Its work soon grew global — disaster relief, refugee aid, racial reconciliation, peace education.

"They served in place of soldiering, love in place of hate, understanding in place of prejudice." — 1947 Nobel citation

In 1947, the AFSC shared the Nobel Peace Prize with the British Friends Service Council, in recognition of their long humanitarian work for refugees and peace. It was the 20th century's loudest echo of the Quaker spirit.

6. American Quakers Come to China

In the late 19th century, American Quakers turned their gaze eastward. In 1887, the American Friends' Mission sent a female medical missionary, Esther H. Butler (义白礼), to China. She settled in Nanjing, nursing at Jinling Hospital. The mission's headquarters was in Mount Gilead, Alliance, Ohio.

Butler was succeeded by the Chinese pastor Gao Zhu (高竹), who expanded the mission to Changsha, Wuchang, Wuwei, Lintan, and Wuzhou. This was the first encounter between American Quakerism and Changsha, Hunan.

Yet due to the Quakers' inherent low profile and Hunan's exclusionary tradition, specific records of Quaker activity in Changsha are extremely scarce. This history remains under active research.

7. Landing at My Home

From George Fox in 1652 England, to William Penn in 1681 Pennsylvania, to Esther Butler in 1887 Nanjing, to me in Changsha today — this thread spans three centuries and three oceans.

I am Song Zhuo (宋琢), a native of Changsha. I have no American ancestry, and I am not a direct descendant of the American Quaker mission. But I am drawn by the same spirit — "that of God in everyone." It resonates so strongly with the Chinese concept of liangzhi (innate knowing): Wang Yangming said "liangzhi is the heavenly principle"; Mencius said "all may become Yao and Shun."

And so, in my home in Changsha, we began a small meeting — no pastor, no ritual, just a few friends sitting together, quietly waiting, listening for the voice within. This is Changsha Friends Meeting.

Broad Street in Philadelphia and the lanes of Changsha are half a world apart. But when we sit in stillness, waiting for the light within, we are doing the very same thing the Friends of Penn's city did three centuries ago.

Light knows no geography.